Kokoda Campaign
Pacific War - World War II
July - November 1942
Kokoda Track Campaign
The Kokoda Trail served as a crucial link between Ower's Corner, located roughly 40 kilometres to the northeast of Port Moresby, and the quaint village of Wairopi, nestled on the northern flank of the Owen Stanley Rangers. At Wairopi, which also served as a crossing over the Kumusi River, the trail stretched onward to the coastal communities of Buna, Gona, and Sanananda to the north. The trail took its name from the village of Kokoda, situated on the northward expanse of the main mountain chain, notable for housing the sole airstrip that lay between Port Moresby and the northern shoreline.
After their plans to take Port Moresby through a sea invasion were thwarted at the Coral Sea battle, the Japanese turned their sights to the Kokoda Trail as an overland route for attack. The South Seas Detachment initiated their march at Gona on July 21, 1942, with the initial intention of probing the viability of the Trail for a major advance. However, this reconnaissance quickly escalated into a major offensive. The initial clashes took place at Awala on July 23 between the Papuan Infantry Battalion and the 39th Australian Infantry Battalion.
Despite reinforcements from the 30th and 21st Australian Brigades, the Australian forces found themselves outmatched and ill-equipped to stem the Japanese advance. They struggled with inadequate equipment, lack of jungle combat strategies, and the challenge of maintaining a supply line across difficult terrain. The Australian troops conducted a series of strategic retreats to delay the enemy, finally halting the Japanese at Imita Ridge on September 17. This ridge stood as the last significant barrier before Port Moresby, only 8 kilometers away. Meanwhile, the Japanese established their position on the Ioribaiwa Ridge, just 6 kilometers away.
By this point in the campaign, the balance of power had begun to shift towards the Australians. They now had the advantage of artillery range from Ower's Corner and the ability to transport supplies by vehicle much closer to the front line. In contrast, the Japanese forces had to bear the burden of carrying their supplies from the distant north coast. Compounding their difficulties, the Japanese were reeling from significant losses incurred at Guadalcanal due to the American offensive there, prompting the South Seas Detachment to pull back to Papua’s north coast to establish a defensive line.
On September 23, the Australian 25th Brigade started its cautious advance from Imita Ridge. In a responsive move, the Japanese began their retreat from Ioribaiwa the following day. Throughout their retreat, the Japanese engaged in a series of strategic delay actions, with a tenacity mirroring that of the Australians' earlier efforts. The campaign continued with numerous fierce and costly engagements before the 16th and 25th Australian Brigades were able to cross the Kumusi River at Wairopi in mid-November. This crossing set the stage for even more intense confrontations near the Japanese defensive positions at
Gona, Buna, and Sanananda.
The combat along the Kokoda Trail stands out as among the fiercest that Australian forces faced during World War II. While the capture of Port Moresby was not directly a step towards an invasion of Australia, the victory on the Trail was crucial for protecting Allied bases in northern Australia from air attacks, which were essential for the Allied counter-offensives against Japan. The toll was heavy: about 625 Australian soldiers lost their lives on the Kokoda Trail, and over 1,600 were wounded. Beyond combat casualties, sickness claimed more than 4,000.
The terms "Kokoda Trail" and "Kokoda Track" have been used interchangeably since those wartime days. However, it was "Kokoda Trail" that was officially recognised by the Battles Nomenclature Committee of the British Commonwealth as the battle honour in October 1957.
Battle of Kokoda Trail
THE JAPANESE ADVANCE
... a war of conquest ...
Japan's military campaign to extend its influence began in 1937 with an aggressive move into China. By 1941, they expanded their reach to Indo-China as part of their broader objective to control Southeast Asia. This expansionism erupted into widespread conflict in the Pacific in December 1941 when Japan launched simultaneous attacks against British Malaya and the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. In the months that followed, Japan rapidly overran the Southeast Asian territories of the European colonial powers, pushing further into the Pacific and escalating the scale of World War II in the region.
THE JAPANESE PLAN OPERATION 'MO'
Battle of Midway
In May 1942, the Japanese military strategised an amphibious assault on Port Moresby, known as Operation MO, aiming to strengthen their control in the Pacific. However, the plan was thwarted by the Allied forces during the battle of the Coral Sea from May 5 to 8, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Japanese invasion fleet. The subsequent Battle of Midway, from June 6 to 8, dealt a further blow to Japanese ambitions. Consequently, the Japanese were compelled to reconsider their strategy and opted for a two-front approach to capture Port Moresby. They planned one offensive through Milne Bay and another over the rugged terrain of the Owen Stanley Range, using the Kokoda Track.
‘… this is the story of the fighting along the Kokoda Track… In it there is none of the wild, heart-thrilling drama of great bodies of men. Meeting on wide battlefields in the shocks of massed encounter. Instead, for the most part, it is the story of small groups of men, infinitesimally small against the mountains in which they fought, who killed one another in stealthily and isolated encounters beside the tracks which were life to all of them; of warfare in which men first conquered the country and then allied themselves to it and then killed or died in the midst of a great loneliness…’ (Dudley McCarthy).
AUSTRALIANS DEPLOYED TO KOKODA
The Maroubra Force
On the 29th of June in 1942, during the height of World War II, the Australian 39th Battalion, stationed in Port Moresby, received orders to send a rifle company to Kokoda. Alongside them, members of the Papuan Infantry Battalion (PIB) were tasked with conducting patrols between Kokoda and Buna to monitor Japanese movements. This collaboration of forces came to be recognised as the Maroubra Force.
The PIB, established in June 1940 as part of the Australian Army, was largely made up of indigenous Papuans, with Australian officers leading them. The privates in the PIB were compensated with 10 shillings a month, along with practical items like tobacco sticks, a razor blade, matches, and soap. This wage was comparable to what a top-earning plantation worker would make, but significantly less than their Australian military counterparts. The PIB's distinctive uniform included a khaki skirt that reached the knees, a pullover, and they were equipped with a long, broad knife which served the purpose of a bayonet.
THE JAPANESE LAND AT BUNA, 21 JULY 1942
Buna - Gona
"At 0515 hours, the Ayatozan Maru, loaded with the Advance Butai main force, left the quiet harbour of Rabaul. We were all deeply moved. Rabaul, which was once an important outpost of the enemy’s defence of Australia, is now an advance base of the Imperial Army. We who have participated in the siege of this place 6 months ago, have grown attached to it. Now leaving it for a new operation, our emotion is profound. The direct escort of the Ayatozan Maru consists of a navy special service ship ahead and a destroyer on either beam and astern. Although the sea is rough, we are moving towards the objective, ever on the alert for submarines and aircraft".
From the field log of the Sakigawa Tai (unit).
"On the way back to Gona along the Sanandana Track I came to a beach and saw a warship in the bay. I asked two local people, ‘Who does that ship belong to? Does it belong to the Japanese? They said, ‘We don’t know, we think it might belong to America.’… As I was walking along a Japanese plane flew over my head. After it had gone I looked out to sea again and there were ships coming into the harbour, with two destroyers plus gunships on either flank/ The lined up in the bay".
Private Paul Lafe, Papuan Infantry Battalion.
THE JAPANESE ADVANCE TO KOKODA
Heading Towards Kokoda
Following their landing at Buna, the Japanese forces commenced their push inland, heading towards Kokoda. The Australian 39th Battalion and the Papuan Infantry Battalion confronted them, attempting to impede their progression. However, the Allied soldiers were significantly outnumbered. By the 28th of July, the overwhelming Japanese advance forced the Australian troops to fall back from Kokoda. On that same night, under the cover of darkness, the Japanese intensified their assault on the village, compelling the Australians to retreat further to the position at Deniki.
"We had a tremendous mass of misinformation about the Jap being a little fellow, and the first Jap I hit under the ear with a grenade was six feet two and fifteen stone, with a silver anchor on his belt, meaning they were marines".
Lieutenant Doug McClean, 39th Australian Infantry Battalion
“By midnight the firing on both sides had become almost continuous.. Outside, the mist had grown very dense, but the moonlight allowed me to see where I was going. Thick white streams of vapour stole between the rubber trees, and changed the whole scene into a weird combination of light and shadow. The mist was greatly to our advantage; our own lines retreat remained perfectly plain, but it must have slowed down the enemy’s advance considerably, another chance factor that helped save the Kokoda force…"
Dr Geoffrey Vernon, acting Regimental Medical Officer, 39th Australian Infantry Battalion, Kokoda.
AIR FORCES IN THE KOKODA CAMPAIGN
The Owen Stanley Rangers
In the challenging environment of the Owen Stanley Ranges, where dense jungles and perilous weather made traditional air attacks ineffective, the Allies turned to aircraft to deliver crucial support to their ground forces. This strategy was a pivotal element of the Kokoda campaign.
The transport aircraft, fondly referred to as ‘Biscuit Bombers’ by the troops, were operated by both the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) and the United States Air Force. These planes utilized the arid expanse of the Mayo Lakes to airdrop, and later to land, bringing in essential supplies and facilitating the evacuation of the injured. This logistical support provided the Australians with a significant strategic edge.
Conversely, the Japanese, despite their temporary control of the Kokoda airstrip and their dominance in the air, did not leverage aircraft to supply their ground forces. Consequently, as the campaign progressed, many Japanese soldiers found themselves deprived of even the most fundamental necessities, such as food and medical supplies, severely impacting their operational capacity.
THE AUSTRALIANS ATTEMPT TO RE-TAKE KOKODA
Heading Towards Kokoda
By August 6th, the men of the Australian 39th Infantry Battalion had regrouped in the area between Deniki and Isurava. They were resolved to make a bold push to retake the village of Kokoda and its airstrip, which would allow for reinforcements to be flown directly from Port Moresby.
In a brief moment of success, a company from the 39th Battalion managed to re-enter Kokoda without facing enemy resistance. However, their position was precarious as anticipated reinforcements and support failed to materialise. With no additional forces arriving from Port Moresby, the Australians found themselves vulnerable.
Just four days later, on August 10th, under the stress of intense Japanese artillery fire, the Australian forces were compelled to withdraw once again from Kokoda, relinquishing their temporary hold on the village and airstrip.
10th of August
"The enemy violently resisted with hang grenades and rifle fire. At that point number No. 2 Platoon then rushed in and drove them back… the attack ended successfully. This stirring and dauntless charge is the tradition of our army and no enemy can withstand such an attack".
2nd Lieutenant Hirano 1st Battalion 144th Regiment, Kokoda, 9th August 1942.
"The closest they got to us… was about 5 yards - the distance to the next row of rubber trees. That was pretty close. Then one of them would blow a whistle and they’d all go back again… They never would have gone got through if we'd had enough ammunition. But you can't fight without ammunition".
Corporal Larry Downes, A Company 39th Australian Infantry Battalion, Kokoda, 10 August 1942
PAPUAN CARRIERS
Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels
Throughout the Kokoda Track campaign, both Japanese and Australian forces relied heavily on the local population to transport essential supplies and assist with the wounded. The Japanese forcibly enlisted carriers from Rabaul, bringing them to Buna with their military units. As the conflict progressed and the Japanese began their withdrawal, many of these carriers were deserted. Those who were later found by the Australians reported mistreatment, including beatings, and being coerced to move under the threat of bayonets.
On the Australian side, the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit (ANGAU) was responsible for recruiting carriers to support the Australian Army. These carriers, who became known with endearment as ‘Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels’, were subjected to extreme working hours under gruelling conditions, often bearing loads up to 60 pounds (approximately 27 kilograms). Many of these carriers were from coastal regions and were unaccustomed to the severe mountainous terrain of the Owen Stanley Ranges. By October 1942, there were about 9,300 carriers enlisted by ANGAU contributing to the effort along the Kokoda Track. Their dedication and labour under such harsh conditions were vital to the Australian war effort.
"They carried up supplies and then were loaded down on the return with our wounded The men on the stretches they tended with the devotion of a mother and the care of a nurse. When a stretcher went ‘bugger-up finish’ they lashed a new one together in a matter of moments".
Major H. D. (‘Blue’) Steward, Regimental Medical Officer, 2/16 Australian Infantry Battalion.
THE BATTLE OF ISURAVA, 26-30 AUGUST 1942
Isurava
On the 13th of August, Brigadier A.W. Potts and his 21st Brigade of the Australian Imperial Force, which included the 2/14th, 2/16th, and 2/27th Battalions, arrived in Port Moresby. The 2/14th and 2/16th Battalions wasted no time and immediately embarked on a mission towards Kokoda with the objective of relieving the beleaguered 39th Battalion and reclaiming Kokoda.
Simultaneously, Japanese forces were bolstering their numbers with reinforcements that had landed at Buna. By the 26th of August, approximately 10,000 troops from the South Seas Force, commanded by Major General Horii, were positioned near Isurava. The convergence of the Australian 2/14th Battalion at Isurava and the 2/16th Battalion at Alola on the same day marked the beginning of what would be a severe and prolonged four-day battle between the two forces.
"….gaunt spectres with gaping boots and rotting tatters of uniform hanging around them like scarecrows. Their faces had no expression, their eyes sunk back into their sockets. They were drained by malaria, dysentery and near starvation, but they were still in the firing line, facing a much more powerful enemy…"
Major ‘Blue’ Steward, Regimental Medical Officer, 2/16 Australian Infantry Battalion, on first seeing the 39th Australian Infantry Battalion at Isurava.
"1200 hours saw the main force of the Company charging into a ‘solitary cottage’ – later learned that the Company commander and 9 others were killed in this action. Only this morning he and I, along with Warrant Officer Manabe, were gaily conversing over a cup of ‘sake; from his canteen. Now its only a memory. How cruel and miserable this life is".
2nd Lieutenant Hirano, 1st Battalion 144th Regiment, 29 August 1942
AUSTRALIANS RETREAT TO EFOGI
Efogi
From the 30th of August to the 7th of September, after emerging victorious over the Australians at Isurava, the Japanese forces pressed on with their campaign towards Port Moresby. Facing a force five times their size, the Australian soldiers were not only outnumbered but also fatigued and without adequate defensive positions. Despite these disadvantages, they conducted a tactical retreat from Isurava to Efogi, engaging in a series of rear-guard actions to slow down the Japanese advance. Their tenacious defence during this withdrawal is remembered as a testament to their courage and determination.
"The days go on. You are trying to survive, shirt torn, arse out of your pants, whiskers a mile long, hungry and a continuous line od stretchers with wounded carried by ‘Fuzzy-Wuzzies doing a marvellous job. Some days you carry your boots because there’s no skin on your feet. But when you look around at some of the others – hell! They look crook!"
Laurie Howson, 39th Australian Infantry Battalion
"During the step-by-step withdrawal the operation was executed with text book precision and control; no man left his post before his turn came; we left no wounded and no prisoners… The highly professional performance of the 21st Brigade and the 39th Battalion was all the more praiseworthy because, until after the Efogi battle, there seemed no likelihood of relief."
Captain F.H. Sublet, 2/16th Australian Infantry Battalion.
THE BATTLE FOR BRIGADE HILL, 6-9 SEPTEMBER 1942
THE BATTLE FOR BRIGADE HILL, 6-9 SEPTEMBER 1942
Brigade Hill
By September 5th, the Japanese offensive had succeeded in pushing the Australians out of Myola Lakes, which was a critical site for air-dropping supplies. The Australians retreated to the strategic locations of Mission Ridge and Brigade Hill.
At Brigade Hill, the Australian forces managed to establish a defensive stance to counter the fast-approaching Japanese. Unbeknownst to them, Major General Horii had selected this very area to completely destroy the Maroubra Force. The intense conflict that ensued inflicted heavy losses on both sides. While the Japanese were able to continue their advance, they were significantly delayed by another four days due to the Australians' stubborn defence. During the chaos, the Australian 2/27th Battalion became separated from the main force and was lost in the dense jungle for two weeks.
"That night we dug in at Efogi… We dug a hole with a bayonet and tin hit, and that’s where we spent that night. Ans coming down the other hill towards the river were Japs, hordes of Japs with lanterns…"
Private A.A. (Slim) Little, 2/27th Australian Infantry Battalion
"I must admit I had some degree of amazement as to how active they (the Japanese) were, to be able to keep going. We were flat, absolutely flat out! Still, when they enriched us at Efogi in an area like that… Well you’d have to be a qualified mountain goat to do what they did – to be able to get right around the battalion; around Brigade Hill."
Private Bert Ward, 2/27th Australian Infantry Battalion
BACK OVER THE TRACK
Templeton's Crossing
The Japanese forces, showcasing considerable tactical acumen, orchestrated their retreat to Templeton’s Crossing and the Eora Creek gorge. In these locations, they constructed weapon pits on the elevated terrain overlooking the creek. These fortified positions allowed them to temporarily halt the Australian advance from the 11th to the 27th of October, inflicting substantial casualties on the Australians, particularly at Eora where they held the higher ground.
Despite their effective defensive strategy, the Japanese forces were facing extreme exhaustion and lack of supplies. After several days of intense combat, on the night of the 28th and 29th of October, the beleaguered Japanese troops silently withdrew towards Oivi, evading the Australian forces.
"Crossed Kumusi River and reached the field hospital. Here we were ordered to carry three patients back. This extra burden was very strenuous for men who were extremely tired and weak… spent a night without any food or fire".
2nd Lieutenant Hirano, 1st Battalion 144th Regiment, Isurava, 1st October 1942
"At the Rest House there was a dead Australian lying behind a Bren Gun – he was just a skeleton and it was as if he was still manning the gun – in the correct firing position. He had been so for two months. We buried him".
Corporal H.S. ‘Sandy’ Rayward, 2/1st Australian Infantry Battalion, Isurava, 31 October 1942
TURNING THE TIDE: IMITA RIDGE
TURNING OF THE TIDE: IMITA RIDGE
By the 18th of September, the Japanese forces had advanced to within 42 kilometres of Port Moresby and could even see the Coral Sea on the horizon. Despite this proximity to their objective, they were running low on supplies and had suffered considerable losses while traversing the challenging terrain of the Owen Stanley Range.
In contrast, the Australian forces were not only closer to their supply base but also received a significant boost on the 14th of September with the arrival of reinforcements from the 25th Brigade, which included the 2/25th, 2/31st, and 2/33rd Battalions. This bolstered the Australian defence significantly.
Compounding the situation for the Japanese were their recent defeats at Milne Bay and Guadalcanal. These setbacks left them with little option but to commence a strategic withdrawal across the Kokoda Track, retreating towards their strongholds at Buna, Sanananda, and Gona along the northern coast.
"In the fighting between Kokoda and Isurava our company was reduced from 180 to 80 men. Company commander Ogawa killed at Kokoda: next commander Hatanaka killed at Isurava; third commander is Hirano. Every company reduced to half strength".
Toshio Watanabe, Ioribaiwa, 21st September 1942
"Like a bolt from the blue we received an order to withdraw at 11.30. It left us momentarily in a daze. It is truly regrettable to retreat from our present position after pressing so close to Moresby at the cost of enormous sacrifices and casualties".
2nd Lieutenant Hirano, 1st Battalion 144th Regiment, 23 September 1942.
EFFECTS OF WAR ON THE LOCAL PEOPLE
The Local People
The battles along the Kokoda Track extended beyond the dense jungles, spilling into the gardens and villages of the indigenous people. As combat raged, many locals sought refuge in the jungle, staying close enough to return to their homes once the soldiers moved on.
Local men were often conscripted by the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit (ANGAU) to serve as porters and laborers, contributing to the war effort. Meanwhile, the retreating Japanese troops, desperate for sustenance, ransacked gardens for food, leading to widespread destruction of the villagers' sustenance. Allied air raids further added to the devastation, with many village structures being damaged or destroyed.
This tumultuous period exposed the local population to a broader perspective of the world, as they encountered Australian and Japanese soldiers, as well as other Papua New Guineans from different regions, drawing back the curtain on a world far beyond their own communities.
THE AUSTRALIANS RE-TAKE KOKODA
BACK TO KOKODA
At the onset of November, the Japanese found themselves in a precarious position and ultimately decided to evacuate Kokoda. The risk was significant; if they had chosen to defend it, they might have been encircled and decimated by the combined might of the Australian 25th and 16th Brigades moving through Abuari-Missima-Oivi.
The Australian Army reclaimed Kokoda on the 2nd of November in a pivotal moment of the campaign. However, this victory was just the beginning of another arduous phase of the conflict. The Australians now faced the formidable challenge of assaulting the Japanese stronghold at Gona-Sanananda-Buna, which promised to be a demanding and costly endeavour.
"Occupation of Kokoda is expected by our troops 2 November. Congratulations to you and the fine troops under your command for the rapid advance you have made under shocking conditions which include hunger. The enemy is beaten. Give him no rest and we will annihilate him. It is only matter of a day or two. Tighten your belts and push on".
Major General Vasey, Australian Commander, to Brigadier Eather, 1 November 1942
"With bravery and determination, you men advanced as far as Ioribaiwa in the face of stubborn enemy resistance. We will withdraw to the Kumusi River area, where problems of supply are comparatively easy, and prepare for a future offensive".
Major General Tomitaro Horii, Commander South Seas Force, IIilmo, 1 November 1942.
DISEASE
Health Crisis Amongst The Troops
The Kokoda campaign was waged not just against the enemy forces but also against the formidable challenges posed by the environment. The humid climate, logistical difficulties, and the demanding nature of combat in the Owen Stanley Ranges brought about a grave health crisis among the troops. Diseases were rampant and proved to be a formidable adversary for both the Japanese and Australian forces.
For the Australians, the incidence of illness was staggering for every soldier wounded in combat, two to three were incapacitated by disease. Dysentery and chronic diarrhea were the most prevalent, exacerbated by the relentless dampness, which also fueled the spread of scrub typhus and tinea. Tinea, commonly known as athlete’s foot, was particularly debilitating as it could affect large areas of a soldier's body under such wet conditions. Additionally, many soldiers were stricken with malaria, a disease they contracted in the coastal areas before they even engaged in the front-line battles.
The Papuan carriers and the local villagers along the Kokoda Track were not spared either, with dysentery widely impacting their communities. The repercussions of these diseases were not confined to the battlefield; many soldiers continued to struggle with chronic health issues long after the war had ended due to the repeated bouts of illness they suffered during the campaign.
TO THE BEACH
CONSOLIDATING DEFENCES
By late November 1942, the Japanese had executed a strategic withdrawal and consolidated their defences along the northern coast of Papua. Allied intelligence had initially estimated the enemy's strength in the Gona-Sanananda-Buna region to be between 1000 and 1500 troops. However, the stark reality revealed approximately 9000 determined Japanese defenders.
These defenders employed various tactics, with some entrenched in elaborately camouflaged bunkers and others conducting sniping operations from the cover of coconut palms. The battles that unfolded in this area marked some of the most gruelling and costly fighting in the entire Pacific War.
Ultimately, the turning point had arrived along the Kokoda Track, coupled with successes at Milne Bay. These victories signalled the beginning of the end for the Japanese in Papua, as they were gradually pushed back and defeated by the combined efforts of the Allied forces.
OTHER DEFENCISVE BATTLES IN NEW GUINEA
OTHER DEFENCESIVE BATTLES IN NEW GUINEA
Australian Imperial Force
In late 1943, the 9th Australian Imperial Force (AIF) division engaged in a formidable battle that spanned a gruelling 12 weeks in the Finschhafen area of New Guinea. This campaign unfolded amidst the harsh and unforgiving conditions typical of New Guinea, characterized by incessant torrential rain, treacherous mud, thick slush, and the impenetrable embrace of the tropical jungle. Despite these formidable challenges, the Australian forces succeeded in compelling the Japanese to retreat.
Simultaneously, other Australian units confronted the enemy in the demanding theater of Markham and Ramu River valleys. The tenacity and resilience of these troops were evident as they waged a determined campaign against the Japanese forces.
In April 1944, the Australian forces achieved a significant milestone by capturing Madang. This victory placed the Japanese forces in Eugenia in an increasingly untenable position, signalling a turning point in the conflict as the balance of power shifted decisively in favour of the Allies.
THE CAPTURE OF LAE
Lae
In 1943, Australian and American forces launched an offensive aimed at capturing the formidable Japanese strongholds of Salamaua and Lae. To divert Japanese attention and forces towards Salamaua, rain troops were deployed, luring the enemy into the area. Meanwhile, a pivotal event occurred on the 17th of August 1943 when the Japanese Air Force at Wewak was effectively neutraliSed and destroyed.
In September 1943, the town of Lae fell to a coordinated two-pronged assault. Australian forces landed east of the town, while American paratroopers and Australian soldiers executed a daring landing operation at Nadzab on the Markham River. These synchroniSed manoeuvres led to the occupation of Lae by the 7th and 9th Australian Imperial Force (AIF) Divisions on the 16th of September 1943, marking a significant victory in the Pacific War.
AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT
Allies
During the Pacific War, Allied forces operating in New Guinea operated under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, who held the position of Supreme Commander, South-West Pacific Area. The success of the Allied campaign against the Japanese in Papua New Guinea relied heavily on cooperation among the various Allied nations.
In November 1942, a joint American and Australian effort resulted in a successful attack on the heavily fortified Japanese beachheads at Gona and Buna. This operation marked a significant turning point in the region.
Another pivotal engagement occurred in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in March 1943, where American and Australian aircraft joined forces to attack and repel a Japanese landing force en route to Lae. The crucial support provided by American air and naval assets played a vital role in the success of Australian operations.
In 1944, a series of American landings effectively seized control of Japanese bases along the north coast of New Guinea. During this period, a total of 14 American divisions were engaged in combat across New Guinea, New Britain, Bougainville, and nearby islands, underscoring the scale of the American commitment to the Pacific Theater.
THE HUMAN COST
Humanity
The Kokoda Campaign, which spanned from the 22nd of July to the 16th of November 1942, exacted a heavy toll on Australian forces. During this period, Australian casualties amounted to 607 men killed in action and 988 men wounded in action, reflecting the intense and costly nature of the conflict.
As for Japanese casualty figures specific to the Kokoda Campaign, they are not available. However, it is known that approximately 16,000 to 17,000 Japanese troops were involved in the broader conflict in Papua, with many more engaged in subsequent battles along the North Coast of New Guinea. Among those who fought in Papua, nearly 12,000 Japanese soldiers succumbed to wounds, disease, or starvation, highlighting the harsh conditions and formidable challenges faced by both sides. Additionally, 350 Japanese soldiers were taken as prisoners of war during the campaign.
IN RETROSPECT
Allies
Japan's strategic objective during World War II was to establish an empire known as the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, which encompassed the Southwest Pacific region. Papua, situated in close proximity to Australia, became the theater for the largest and most intricate campaign fought by the Australian army during the war.
In a remarkable feat, the Australian forces achieved victory in less than eight months against a Japanese contingent that was nearly as substantial as the one responsible for capturing Malaya and Singapore. This time, the Australians were better prepared, benefitting from improved air power and a more robust supply infrastructure. The Kokoda campaign represented a pivotal moment in the war, signifying a turning point in the Pacific Theater.
"It will never be the same silent, sweet-smelling jungle track where man and his indecencies were almost unknown. It’s a trail of blood and iron now, and in the memory of this generation will remain so".
Dr Geoffrey Vernon, Medical Officer, 39th Australian Infantry Battalion
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